First philosopher in Greek tradition and (pre-Socratic) scientific philosophy
Proposed Earth floats on water
First to use deductive reasoning in geometry
Predicted solar eclipse (May 28, 585 BC)
Formulated Thales’ Theorem
Hylozoist (matter is alive)
Known as the “Olive Baron”
Pythagoras of Samos (570–495 BC)
Born in Samos; died in Croton or Metapontum
Pythagorean Theorem
Theory of Proportions
Identified Venus as a celestial body
Believed Earth is spherical
Universe governed by mathematical law
May have originated musica universalis
Heraclitus of Ephesus (535–475 BC)
Panta rhei — “everything flows”
"Change is the only constant""
Unity of opposites
Philolaus (470–385 BC)
Successor of Pythagoras
Believed Earth not center of universe
Originator of Pythagorean astronomy
Harmony of limited/unlimited cosmos
Socrates (470–399 BC)
Born and died in Athens, Greece
Founder of moral philosophy
Used Socratic method of inquiry
Heretic and “gadfly” of the state
Sentenced to death for corrupting the minds of Athenian youth
Democritus (460–370 BC)
Atomic theory of the universe
Believed all matter made of atoms
Held flat-Earth view
Plato (427–347 BC)
Born and died in Athens, Greece
Founded the Academy in Athens
Developed Theory of Forms
Student of Socrates, teacher of Aristotle and Eudoxus
Archytas of Tarentum (428–350 BC)
Greek philosopher, mathematician, and statesman
Contributed to number theory and irrational numbers
Defined the harmonic mean
Founder of mathematical mechanics
Studied musical theory and astronomy
Aristotle (384–322 BC)
Born in Stagira, Chalcidian League and died in Euboea, Macedonian Empire
Founded the Lyceum in Athens
Wrote on nearly every domain of knowledge (physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, aesthetics, poetry, theatre, music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, economics, politics, and government)
Believed that “objects tend toward a point due to their inner gravitas (heaviness)” and seek a “final cause” or “end”
Believed force was needed to maintain motion (constant force = constant motion - “Continuation of motion depends on the continued action of a force”)
Interpreted light in terms of in terms of “act” and “potency” as “the act of a transparent body, inasmuch as it is transparent”
Tutored Alexander the Great
Menaechmus (380–320 BC)
Likely discovered conic sections while solving the Delian problem of doubling the square
Famously rejected shortcuts to learning geometry - When said to have been tutoring Alexander the Great, he was asked for a shortcut to understanding geometry. He replied to Alexander, “O King, for traveling over the country, there are royal road and roads for common citizens, but in geometry there is one road for all.” (Beckmann 1989)
Associated with tutoring Alexander the Great
Euclid of Alexandria (325–270 BC)
Father of geometry
Author of Elements and other treatises
Wrote on optics, fallacies, loci, mechanics
“No royal road to geometry” (to Ptolemy I)
* Possibly conflated with the story about Menaechmus and Alexander the Great
Aristarchus of Samos (310–230 BC)
First to propose heliocentric model
Placed Sun at center, not Earth
Identified Philolaus’ “central fire” as the Sun
Wrote On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and Moon
Archimedes of Syracuse (287–212 BC)
Mathematician, engineer, inventor, physicist
Anticipated calculus via infinite series
Accurately approximated pi by measuring circles, spheres, cylinders, etc
Created exponentiation
Developed statics and hydrostatics
Formulated Archimedes’ principle (buoyancy)
Invented Archimedes’ screw & box (Ostomachion)
Wrote a manual on constructing an Antikythera
Wrote on mechanical theorems and floating bodies
Was killed by a soldier against their orders during Siege of Syracuse!
Eratosthenes of Cyrene (276–194 BC)
Founder of geography and chronology
Chief librarian at Library of Alexandria
Created system of latitude and longitude
Calculated Earth's circumference and axial tilt
Estimated distance to the Sun
Apollonius of Perga (240–190 BC)
Defined conic sections: ellipse, parabola, hyperbola
Advanced geometric theory of curves
Hipparchus of Nicaea (190–120 BC)
Founder of trigonometry
Discovered precession of equinoxes
First reliable solar eclipse predictions
Compiled first star catalog
Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (80/70–15 BC)
Roman architect and engineer
Performed measurements of specific gravity
Known for De Architectura
Claudius Ptolemy (100–168 AD)
Author of Almagest, Geographia, Optics, Harmonics, Planetary Hypotheses and Phaseis (Risings of the Fixed Stars) which included a star calendar/almanac
Maintained geocentric model for 1300 years
Nested spheres with epicycles
Explained vision using rays, distance, and angle - size-distance invariance
Believed music intervals should be based upon mathematical ratios like tetrachords and octaves (agreeing with the Pythagoreans and Pythagorean tuning though not explicitly the 3:2 ratio)
Influenced Kepler’s Harmonice Mundi
Diophantus of Alexandria
Known as the "father of algebra"
Wrote Arithmetica, solving equations with symbols
Early use of algebraic notation and methods
Aryabhata (476–550 AD)
Indian mathematician and astronomer
Introduced place-value system and zero
Accurately calculated pi and Earth's rotation
Wrote Aryabhatiya
John Philoponus (490–570 AD)
Byzantine scientist and philosopher
Proposed theory of impetus (early momentum) - stating that impetus diminishes over time
Argued that motion fades without external force
Criticized Aristotle’s causation and motion theories
Brahmagupta (598–668 AD)
Indian astronomer and mathematician
First to define rules for zero and negative numbers
Introduced concept of gravity as gurutvakarshan
Wrote Brahmasphutasiddhanta
Al-Khwarizmi (780–850 AD)
Persian mathematician and astronomer
Wrote foundational book on algebra
Introduced Hindu-Arabic numerals to the West
“Algorithm” derived from his name
Al-Kindi (c. 801–873 AD)
Arab philosopher, mathematician, and scientist
Wrote on optics, cryptography, and music theory
Translated and preserved Greek philosophy
One of the first to reconcile philosophy with Islam
Al-Farabi (c. 872–950 AD)
Philosopher and logician known as the "Second Teacher"
Wrote on metaphysics, ethics, and political theory
Classified sciences and influenced Islamic Neoplatonism
Composed works on music and its psychological effects
Ibn al-Haytham (965–1040 AD)
Father of modern scientific method
Pioneered use of experimental data, reproducible results
Founder of modern optics
Studied vision, light, and refraction
Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) (980–1037 AD)
Philosopher and polymath
Distinguished between force and inclination
Claimed motion continues until inclination is spent
Influenced later theories of inertia
Shen Kuo (1031–1095 AD)
Chinese scientist and statesman
Studied earthquakes and erosion
Described magnetic needle and true north
Used camera obscura for optical research
Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi (1080–1165 AD)
Islamic philosopher and physicist
Refined ideas of motion and acceleration
Critiqued Aristotelian physics
Proposed non-linear acceleration from force
Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt (fl. 1269)
Studied lodestones and mapped magnetic lines
Discovered magnetic poles on spherical magnets
Introduced concept of magnetic meridians
Laid foundation for theories of polarization
Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274)
Major advocate of Aristotelian philosophy in 13th century Europe
Formulated Thomist metaphysics and ethics
Declared metaphysics the supreme natural science
William of Ockham (1285–1347)
Originator of Ockham’s Razor
Undermined Aristotelian scholasticism
Laid groundwork for Renaissance philosophy
Early contributor to rotational dynamics
Jean Buridan (c. 1300–1358)
Refined and popularized the theory of impetus
Suggested motion continues unless opposed
Challenged Aristotelian views on dynamics
Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519)
Artist, engineer, anatomist, and inventor
Studied hydrodynamics, flight, and human anatomy
Drew mechanical devices and military machines
Explored physics through observation and sketches
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543)
Proposed heliocentric model of the solar system
Placed Earth in motion around the Sun
Published De revolutionibus orbium coelestium in the year of his death
William Gilbert (1544–1603)
Physician to Queen Elizabeth
Published De Magnete, beginning modern magnetism
Greatly extended the work of Peregrinus
Proposed Earth is a giant magnet
Coined the term electric force
Distinguished electric vs. magnetic attraction
Hypothesized electric effluvia and atmospheres
Influenced Newton and later natural philosophers
Tycho Brahe (1546–1601)
Danish astronomer and nobleman
Made highly accurate naked-eye observations
Developed a geo-heliocentric model of the solar system
Mentor to Johannes Kepler
Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)
Father of modern experimental science
Defended heliocentrism in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632)
Proposed Galilean relativity for inertial frames
Clashed with Aristotelians and Church authorities
Attempted to measure speed of light with lanterns
Famously muttered “Eppur si muove” – “And yet it moves”
Johannes Kepler (1571–1630)
Disproved Aristotelian separation of heavens and Earth
Developed three laws of planetary motion
Used Tycho Brahe’s data to support heliocentrism
Emphasized mathematical laws of nature
Inspired Descartes and later mechanistic models
Isaac Beeckman (1588–1637)
Dutch philosopher and scientist
Advocate of mechanical philosophy
Influenced Descartes and Gassendi
Applied mathematics to physical problems
Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655)
French priest, philosopher, mathematician, and astronomer
Reintroduced ancient atomism to modern science
Critic of Aristotelian and Cartesian philosophy
Influenced Newton and Boyle
René Descartes (1596–1650)
Father of modern philosophy: “Cogito, ergo sum”
Founded mechanical philosophy (mechanism)
Epistemological Rationalism
Invented Cartesian coordinates and analytic geometry
Proposed 3 laws of motion and universal mechanism
Postulated concept of “plenum” or “aether” and its mechanical properties as well as “vortices”
Theory of aether and vortices in magnetism
Linked color and light to rotary motion of matter
“Give me matter and motion and I will construct the universe”
Pierre de Fermat (1607–1665)
Mathematician and lawyer
Formulated the Principle of Least Time - "Nature always acts by the shortest course."
Developed method of adequality (proto-calculus)
Influential in geometry, number theory, and optics
Blaise Pascal (1623–1662)
French mathematician, physicist, philosopher
Developed Pascal's triangle and early probability theory
Invented mechanical calculator
Contributed to fluid statics and pressure theory
Wrote Pensées on faith, reason, and the human condition
Robert Boyle (1627–1691)
Father of modern chemistry
Published The Sceptical Chemist
Distinguished between elements, compounds, and mixtures
Formulated Boyle’s Law for gases
Promoted experimental method and mechanical philosophy
Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695)
Criticized Descartes for clinging to Greek-style philosophy and envying Galileo
Championed wave theory of light over Newton's corpuscles
Proposed that light travels as a disturbance through an invisible aether permeating all matter—even vacuums
Developed Huygens’ Principle to explain reflection and refraction, succeeding where others failed
Studied birefringence and showed that split light beams behaved differently than ordinary rays
Tried to explain gravity via fluid vortices pushing matter toward Earth’s center
Robert Hooke (1635–1703)
Assistant to Robert Boyle; polymath inventor and early physicist
Proposed light as rapid vibratory motion—a major step toward wave theory
Introduced the concept of the wavefront to explain reflection and refraction
Improved Cartesian models by correcting errors in light refraction (e.g. “trajection”)
Suggested that color results from deflection of wavefronts (prismatic colors)
Held that light propagates more easily in rarer media, but more powerfully in denser ones
His color theory was later refuted by Newton, but his idea of light as motion influenced Huygens
Played a key transitional role between Cartesian statics and Huygens’ elastic wave theory
Hooke’s rivalry with Newton led to disputes over optics, motion, and credit for discoveries
Isaac Newton (1642–1727)
Developed the first comprehensive laws of motion and universal gravitation (Principia, 1687)
Discovered that white light is composed of all colors—demonstrated via prism experiments
Refuted the idea that color is created by reflection or refraction; called it a connate property of light
Introduced the particle (corpuscular) theory of light, associating colors with properties of particles
Investigated periodicity in light: red light has the longest “fit” (wavelength), violet the shortest
Explained polarization, birefringence, and reflection using particle orientation analogies
Viewed aether as a medium of varying density—its vibrations explain light, heat, and gravity transfer
Argued gravity works through space but rejected the idea that it acts across a vacuum without mediation
Clashed with Cartesians over “action at a distance” and opposed vortex models of planetary motion
His work was initially resisted—Cambridge still taught Descartes into the 18th century
Was ultimately championed in Britain, with Edinburgh adopting Newtonian teaching before Cambridge
Criticized for using the word “attraction”—Voltaire claimed French ridicule delayed Newton's acceptance
Influenced by and responded to Huygens’ and Hooke’s work, but redefined physics on a mathematical foundation
His legacy eclipsed Descartes’, reshaping philosophy, astronomy, and the scientific method
Ole Rømer (1644–1710)
Danish astronomer and professor of mathematics in Paris
First to demonstrate that light travels at a finite speed
Explained delays in Jupiter's eclipses based on Earth-Jupiter distance
Estimated light takes ~11 minutes to travel from Sun to Earth
Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782)
Swiss physicist and mathematician from the Bernoulli family dynasty
Formulated Bernoulli’s Principle—pressure and velocity tradeoff in fluids
Applied statistics to gas laws and hydrodynamics
Early contributor to kinetic theory and probability
Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790)
American polymath and Enlightenment figure
Demonstrated that lightning is electrical using a kite experiment
Invented the lightning rod and coined “positive” and “negative” charge
Proposed a single-fluid model of electricity
Leonhard Euler (1707–1783)
Prolific Swiss mathematician and physicist
Contributed to mechanics, optics, astronomy, hydrodynamics, and topology
Formulated Euler’s Formula: \( e^{ix} = \cos x + i \sin x \)
Introduced Euler’s Equation in fluid dynamics
Popularized modern notation: \( f(x) \), \( \sum \), and \( i \) for √−1
Jean-Baptiste d’Alembert (1717–1783)
French mathematician, mechanician, physicist, and philosopher
Co-editor of the Encyclopédie with Diderot
Formulated the d’Alembert principle in dynamics
Derived the one-dimensional wave equation
Contributed to music theory and fluid mechanics
Georges-Louis Le Sage (1724–1803)
Genevan physicist
Built an early electric telegraph (1774)
Proposed gravitational screening theory using ultra-mundane particles
Developed a Cartesian-inspired explanation for Newtonian gravity
Henry Cavendish (1731–1810)
British natural philosopher and chemist
Proposed inverse-square law for electric force (1762)
Measured Earth's density with torsion balance experiment
Discovered hydrogen and studied its properties
Joseph-Louis Lagrange (1736–1813)
Developed Lagrangian mechanics from Newton’s laws
Founded the calculus of variations
Worked extensively on celestial mechanics and number theory
Formulated Lagrange’s equations of motion
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1736–1806)
Formulated Coulomb’s law of electrostatic force (1784)
Studied friction, torsion, and magnetism
Pioneered precision measurement in physics
Alessandro Volta (1745–1827)
Invented the first chemical battery: the voltaic pile
Established voltage as a measurable electrical property
Disproved Galvani’s idea of animal electricity
The unit of electric potential, the volt, is named after him
Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827)
Astronomer and Mathematician
Wrote Dynamic Theory of Tides (1775) and Mécanique Céleste (1799 – 1825), unifying celestial mechanics
Developed Laplace’s equation and spherical harmonics
Formulated a theory of tides and gravitational collapse, being of of the first to postulate black holes
Laid groundwork for statistical mechanics and probability and invented the Z-transform
André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836)
Formulated Ampère’s law of electromagnetism
Described angular dependence of force between current-carrying wires (1820)
Namesake of the unit of electric current: ampere (A)
Hans Christian Ørsted (1777–1851)
Discovered that electric currents affect magnetic needles (1820)
Laid the foundation for the field of electromagnetism
Ørsted’s law describes magnetic fields around currents
François Arago (1786–1853)
Astronomer, physicist, and mathematician
Observed eddy currents and rotatory magnetism (1824) and that most conductive bodies could be magnetized (to be later fully explained by Faraday)
Influenced later work by Faraday and Maxwell
Michael Faraday (1791–1867)
Developed the field concept for electricity and magnetism
Discovered electromagnetic induction (1831)
Invented the Faraday disc (first homopolar generator)
Explored gravity’s relation to electromagnetism
Wrote On the Physical Character of the Lines of Magnetic Force (1852) which investigated gravity, electricity, radiation, and propagation media.
William Rowan Hamilton (1805–1865)
Founded Hamiltonian mechanics
Developed quaternions (non-commutative algebra)
Unified optics and dynamics via characteristic functions
James Prescott Joule (1818–1889)
Discovered the mechanical equivalent of heat
Formulated Joule’s law of heating
Namesake of the joule (J), the SI unit of energy
Jean Bernard Léon Foucault (1819–1868)
Demonstrated Earth’s rotation using the Foucault pendulum
Coined the term “gyroscope”
Measured the speed of light more precisely
Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894)
Formulated conservation of energy (First Law of Thermodynamics)
Advanced theories of vision, hearing, and perception
Investigated vortex motion and physiological optics
William Thomson, Lord Kelvin (1824–1907)
Engineer and mathematical physicist
Formulated the 1st and 2nd Laws of Thermodynamics
Introduced the Kelvin Temperature Scale
Developed the concept of vector potential (1851)
Knighted by Queen Victoria in 1866 for his work on the transatlantic telegraph
Georg Friedrich Bernhard Riemann (1826–1866)
Formulated Riemann integral and Riemannian geometry
Described Riemann surfaces and functions
First to show retarded potentials solve the inhomogeneous wave equation (1858)
Influenced mathematical physics and relativity
James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879)
Formulated classical electromagnetic theory
Unified electricity, magnetism, and light via field equations
"On Faraday’s Lines of Force" (1855–56)
"On Physical Lines of Force" (1861)
"A Dynamical Theory Of The Electromagnetic Field" (1865)
Identified Faraday’s law as describing two separate phenomena: motional EMF and transformer EMF
Oliver Heaviside (1850–1925)
Invented modern vector notation
Reduced Maxwell’s 20 equations to 4
Corrected J.J. Thomson’s magnetic force law and identified the correct force due to an external magnetic field (1885–89)
Predicted a cogravitational field
Published "A Gravitational and Electromagnetic Analogy" (1893)
Hendrik Lorentz (1853–1928)
Abandoned Maxwellian descriptions of ether and conduction, distinguished between matter and the aluminiferous aether and applied the Maxwell-Heaviside equations at a microscopic scale using Lagrangian mechanics
Derived the Lorentz force law and identified the contribution of the electric force (1895)
Applied Lagrangian mechanics to electromagnetic systems
Nikola Tesla (1856–1943)
Inventor and electrical engineer
Developed AC electrical systems and wireless energy concepts
Built Tesla coil and experimented with radio transmission
J.J. Thomson (1856–1940)
Discovered the electron using a cathode ray tube
First to derive electromagnetic forces on a moving object from Maxwell's equations
Determined magnetic force at half correct value due to incomplete displacement current theory
Ernest Rutherford
Father of nuclear physics
Discovered alpha and beta radiation
Proposed nuclear model of the atom
Albert Einstein
Developed Special and General Relativity
Explained photoelectric effect, contributing to quantum theory
Won Nobel Prize in Physics (1921)
Max Born
Introduced probabilistic interpretation of quantum wave functions
Significant contributions to quantum theory
Niels Bohr
Developed Bohr model of the atom
Introduced quantum jumps and energy levels
Key figure in Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics
Wolfgang Pauli
Formulated Pauli Exclusion Principle
Made foundational contributions to quantum field theory
Enrico Fermi
Built the first nuclear reactor
Contributed to quantum theory, nuclear and particle physics
Developed Fermi-Dirac statistics
Paul Dirac
Unified quantum mechanics and special relativity
Predicted existence of antimatter
Formulated Dirac equation
Richard Feynman (1918–1988)
Developed path integral formulation of quantum mechanics
Co-founder of quantum electrodynamics (QED)
Renowned educator and science communicator
Oleg Dmitrovich Jefimenko (1922–2009)
Derived general time-dependent solutions to Maxwell’s equations
Showed that charge and current densities generate both electric and magnetic fields
Emphasized that fields arise directly from source distributions, not just potentials
